F- Stratification of wealth levels and areas of poverty Economists have thoroughly analyzed financial and market forces that explain land values and the mechanisms that have brought about the geographical expansion of urban areas. In many industrialized countries, population growth results in the outward expansion of urban areas, and population decline can also sometimes be a precursor to sprawl. By contrast, in some emerging countries, poor people who are drawn from rural areas to cities become concentrated in slums, where access to utilities and permanent housing is rare.60 In the case of developed countries, rising incomes allow residents to purchase larger living spaces that are farther from the city’s downtown. Alternatively, residents move to Source Les Echos - Dec. 2, 2019 - © Joao Marcos ROSA/NITRO-REA - https:// places where housing options are less expensive, which are www.lesechos.fr/idees-debats/editos-analyses/quelques-idees-fausses-sur-les- generally suburban and ex-urban areas located on the outskirts inegalites-1153018 of metropolitan areas. These trends lead to an overuse of private transportation if there is a lack of public transport G- Information and communication technologies infrastructure. In the developing world’s cities, meanwhile, the accumulation of a deprived population with little or no access As we mentioned earlier, the notion of smart city has been to employment, low education levels, and very low purchasing built on the first approaches to urban innovation that were power places heavy pressure on scarce resources such as land, developed in the middle of the first decade of the 2000s. water, and electricity. Urban transformation during that period laid heavy emphasis on networks of sensors, information sharing, and delegation Figure 1.3 - The Paraisópolis favela next to its wealthy of management to algorithms and computers. Among the neighbor, Morumbi, in São Paulo (Brazil) biggest difficulties that arise when implementing the smart city concept, two stand out: • An excessive concentration on investing in advanced technologies without first developing an accurate perception of conflicts and problems in cities; • The exacerbation of social inequalities owing to the deployment of smart technologies in cities with complex social problems. ICT as a Tool, Not as an Endpoint. Conceiving oftechnology as the overriding method of achieving urban transformation is now a thing of the past. The failure of the Sidewalk Labs project in Toronto (see Chapter 6) encapsulates all the problems arising from and objections made to projects that are overwhelmingly based on ICT and unilaterally handed over to a private actor. This does not mean that the smart and sustainable city will not have to resort to information sharing. The three criteria of appropriation by citizens, interoperability between services and uses, and the privacy of personal data are key dimensions of any type of smart city project. Innovative Path. Technology and innovation will have a key role Source: © Tuca Vieira 2007. http://www.tucavieira.com.br/ to play in the switch to a low-carbon economy founded on (60) Ewing, R., Bartholomew, K., Winkelman, S., Walters, J., Chen, D., McCann, B., & Goldberg, D. (1997). Growingcooler: The evidence on urban development and climate change. Urban Land Institute; Brody S. (2013), op. cit. 47 Quélin and Smadja | HEC PARIS | SMART CITIES | The sustainable program of six leading cities | 2021