assaults on public officials increased by 100 percent (Denmark European cities (https://www.iqair.com/denmark/capital- 2019 Crime & Safety Report, Overseas Security Advisory Council region/copenhagen). The Danish capital is known for its website, 2020). Between June 2017 and January 2018, the police strong bicycle culture and its commitment to the environment force recorded an increase in the number of violent acts that (https://www.healtheuropa.eu/copenhagen-crowned-europes- took place. These incidents included forty-two shootings and healthiest-city/96778/). However, Denmark’s National Centre four knife attacks. This spike in violence across the country led for Environment and Energy estimates that approximately to the establishment of zones where police could stop and frisk 550 citizens die prematurely every year due to pollution and people without probable cause (Denmark 2019 Crime & Safety that pollution generates a societal cost estimated at around Report, Overseas Security Advisory Council website, 2020). six hundred million euros: “The total external costs in the Copenhagen metropolitan area in 2010 due to all air pollution Copenhagen is a relatively safe city. On many levels, it is safer from both domestic and foreign emissions sources are about than other European or American cities. In Copenhagen, “There DKK 12 billion (DKK 109) per year, of which about DKK 4 billion is moderate risk from crime in Copenhagen. According to per year in Copenhagen and Frederiksberg.” Additionally, the Danish police, some criminal activity in Denmark is increasing, scientific report concluded that “the total external costs in and peripheral individuals may be vulnerable to radicalization” Copenhagen due to the total air pollution from domestic and (https://www.osac.gov/Content/Report/4fbcbb05-5b6b-4c1d- foreign emission sources are approx. DKK 4 billion and the local a49d-15f4aeb7913b). Criminal groups operating in Denmark emissions in Copenhagen and Frederiksberg contribute only commit sophisticated illegal activities like drug trafficking, about DKK 500 million equal to 11%.” This means “that about people smuggling, and weapon trafficking (https://www.osac. 89% of all external costs related to air pollution in Copenhagen gov/Content/Report/4fbcbb05-5b6b-4c1d-a49d-15f4aeb7913b). are caused by emissions outside Copenhagen” (Brandt, Jensen, & Plejdrup, 2013; www.dmu.dk/Pub/SR64.pdf).4 1.3.1 Cybersecurity issues Denmark is sometimes considered one of the world’s most Across the city, the Air View project is helping Copenhagen to digitalized countries. Perhaps as a consequence, cybercrime tackle air pollution issues by using Google Street View vehicles has become a key issue for the Danish government. In 2018, equipped with equipment that measures air quality at the street Denmark’s Defense Intelligence Services identified two main level (Karin Tuxen Bettman, 2018). This data collection allows points: i) Foreign states use cyberespionage; ii) Hacker groups the city to create a dataset that can map hyperlocal emissions can execute cyberattacks targeting sensitive and critical and pollution particles. Additionally, the city has allocated infrastructure (hospitals, transport, and so forth). For instance, funding for a smartphone application that sends users alerts the 2017 NotPetya cyberattack inflicted more than ten billion about pollution levels. US dollars in damage on governments and businesses, costing Maersk, the Danish logistics company, as much as three The issue of air pollution is connected with many areas of city hundred million dollars (Denmark 2019 Crime & Safety Report, life (for example, transportation and buildings). In Copenhagen, Overseas Security Advisory Council website, 2020). the State of Green NGO, a public-private partnership between the Danish government and Denmark’s four leading business Over the coming years, Denmark plans to invest 1.5 billion associations (the Confederation of Danish Industry, the Danish Danish kroner (202 million euros) in its cybersecurity and Energy Association, the Danish Agriculture and Food Council, information security. According to the government’s strategy and Wind Denmark) is centralizing many different projects for 2018-2021, its policy is based on a triad: a) increasing related to sustainability (soft mobility, energy savings, use technological resilience, b) improving citizens’ knowledge, of renewable sources of energy, and waste recycling) and and c) strengthening coordination between differentseeking to foster partnerships and pilot projects around the actors. Denmark is actively working on defining its critical city (including with the airport, with three harbors, and with infrastructure (Denmark 2019 Crime & Safety Report, 2020). Malmö, Sweden, over road and boat traffic). 1.4 Air pollution 1.4.1 Air pollution and copenhagen’s climate plan Air pollution in Copenhagen is influenced by local sources in According to the European City Ranking (http://www.the city but also sources outside the city, from Denmark and sootfreecities.eu/sootfreecities.eu/public/), Copenhagen Europe. “There is a regional contribution of air pollution that has the second best air quality among twenty-three major is transported over long distances which can’t be controlled (4) https://dce.au.dk/en/publications/scientific-reports/nr-301 -350/abstracts/no-322-health-effects-and-external-costs-of-emissions-from-straw-boilers/ 118 Quélin and Smadja | HEC PARIS | SMART CITIES | The sustainable program of six leading cities | 2021